"The only way to be totally free is through education" - Jose Marti
Topic 10: Challenges
The problems that adolescents face today are numerous and diverse. Many people may dismiss the issues of adolescents as being part of the tumultuous transition period referred to as a time of “storm and stress”, and their belief that teenagers are synonymous with problems is often supported by popular media portrayals, but the challenges that adolescents face can be of serious concern. Although most teens will not continue to engage in anti-social behaviour once out of their teenage years, this does not preclude adolescents from getting help in working through challenges. As a future teacher and concerned citizen, I feel that problems that arise in adolescents must be addressed and properly treated rather than dismissed as a temporary condition that teens will “grow out of”.
In the field of adolescent psychology all problems can generally be characterized as belonging to one of two types: externalizing problems or internalizing problems. Externalizing problems (common among boys) result from an adolescent turning their difficulties outward and are related to undercontrolled problems, or a lack of control for impulses (Can Leeuwen, De Fruyt, & Mervielde, 2004). Internalizing problems (common among girls) result from turning difficulties inward and are associated with overcontrolled problems and repression of impulses (Van Leeuwen et al., 2004). The two problem types are not mutually exclusive and a teen may be experiencing more than one kind of problem expressed in more than one way at the same time.
Externalizing Problems
Delinquency and violence
McMahan and Thompson (2015) note a decrease in overall youth crime, as well as the severity of youth crime in recent years, they also state that according to Statistics canada (2012) 36 youths were accused of homicide in 2011. Although this represents a decrease, I feel that any amount of serious crime among adolescents is reason for concern, particularly as schools are the setting for 23% of violent crime and 31% of drug crime committed by youth (Statistics Canada, 2010b). Adolescents also experience an alarming amount of daily violence in the form of physical assault (Statistics Canada, 2010c). One area of particular concern is the disproportionately high numbers of Aboriginal youth in custody as the result of delinquency. As a future teacher I have an obligation to address these issues not only for the sake of the youth involved, but also as a means of protection for the other students and staff members.
Risk factors that increase delinquency in adolescents include being impulsive and restless (McMahan & Thompson, 2015), mistreatment as children (Caspi et al., 2002; Foley et al., 2004), associating with delinquent peers (Beaver, Ratchford, & Ferguson, 2009), family poverty (McMahan & Thompson, 2015), low parental monitoring (Pepler, Jiang, Craig, & Connolly, 2010) and learning disabilities (McNamara & Willoughby, 2010).
Substance Use and Abuse
The use of chemical substances is a part of daily life, the issue that is to be avoided in adolescence is the use of psychoactive substances to the point of creating a drug dependence, or worse and overdose leading to serious circumstances including death. Alcohol is a major concern, not only for the risk of dependency, but the dangerous practice of binge drinking that is common among high school students with about half of Grade 12 students engaging in binge drinking (CCSA, 2011). Alcohol can have drastic direct effects including alcohol poisoning leading to comas or death, as well as indirect effects such as accidents resulting from driving under the influence of alcohol. 16 to 25-year-olds made up one-third of the alcohol-related crash fatalities in 2006 (MADD, 2012).
Many high school teachers would be unhappy but possibly not surprised by the news that adolescent use of all substances increases over the high school years, particularly in reference to alcohol and marijuana (Leatherdale & Burkhalter, 2012). Tempting as it may be to say “it’’s just a phase” or “it’s no big deal, all teens are like that”, there is a social responsibility of teachers to equip students with the proper life tools to avoid making injurious decisions. What causes adolescents to be drawn to substance use and abuse? Risk factors include a history of physical or sexual abuse in childhood (Tonmyr, Thornton, Draca & Wekerle, 2010), aggression, disruptive behaviour, and conduct problems (McMahon & Thompson, 2015), as well as school misbehaviour (Bryant, Schulenberg, O’Malley, Bachman & Johnston, 2003), hostile, coercive parenting (Chaplin, Sinha, Simmons, Healy, Mayes, Hommer & Crowley, 2011), and the attitudes and behaviours of friends and peers (Branstetter, Low, & Furman, 2011; Ellis, crooks, & Wolfe, 2009; Kiesner & Kerr, 2004; Simons-Morton & Chen, 2006).
Internalizing Problems
Eating Problems
Depression
Depression is an important challenge to consider as it is the most common psychological disturbance among adolescents (Graber, 2004; Ollendick et al., 2006). In the teenage years, girls are twice as likely as boys to become depressed (Ge, Natsuaki, & Conger, 2006; Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). Depression is related to self-harming behaviours such as cutting and suicide.
Risk factors include family background (Graber, 2004), stress caused by puberty, family conflict (Guberman & Manassis, 2011), emotional maltreatment or sexual abuse (Tonmyr, Williams, Hovdestad, & Draca, 2011), living in a low SES area (Cutrona, Wallace, & Wesner, 2006), disconnection from school (Millings, Buck, Montgomery, Spears, & Stallard, 2012), peer relationships (McMahan & Thompson, 2015), romantic relationships (Davila & Steinberg, 2006; Loftus, Kelly, & Mustillo, 2011), and systemic sexism and racism (McMahan & Thompson, 2015). When an adolescent sees negative events as being out of his or her control and of long term impact (stable), the teen can enter a state of hopelessness which can lead to depression (Abramson & Alloy, 2006; Klonsky, Kotov, Baskt, Rabinowitz, & Bromet, 2012). Furthermore, depression can intensify or become drawn out through the practice of rumination, which is particularly common among girls (Nolen-Hocksema & Corte, 2004).
Suicide
How can teachers help?
As a teacher, my primary role in regards to adolescent challenges will be to recognize students at risk of and students engaging in self destructive behaviour. Being a teenager is no easy task, and in some cases the teacher is the only positive role model an adolescent may have access to in his or her life. Fortunately, teachers are not alone in their efforts to help youth. There are a number of valuable resources available to teachers, parents, and students that can support adolescents in times of need. An important point to remember is that a teacher is not a physician or a psychologist. I am obligated to provide the best possible care to students, and sometimes that means putting them in the care of others. I think a difficult challenge for teachers is to understand the limitations of a trusting relationship with students; if a student were to disclose to me some kind of self-harming behaviour in confidence I will have to break their trust in order to grant them access to the best help available.
One student group that is of particular risk for delinquency and suicide are Aboriginal youth. Sensitivity to Aboriginal backgrounds is imperative to creating a safe school environment, particularly curbing the effects of racial stereotyping that becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. I am almost guaranteed to have Aboriginal students in my classroom and I must approach their learning experience from a place of understanding rather than from a place of assimilation and marginalization. As a result of the Truth and Reconciliation Guidelines, teachers in Canada will now be integrating elements of Aboriginal culture into the education process. Furthermore, I will try to connect to a local elder who can act as a cultural guide and support for students in need. A closer connection to cultural practices has been linked to a reduction in suicide (Chandler & Lalonde, 2008).
Other resources that are useful for the challenges of adolescence include:
Delinquency
HelpGuide.org: Help for Parents of Troubled Teens
http://www.helpguide.org/articles/teen-issues/helping-troubled-teens.htm
Offers guidelines in recognizing the warning signs of a troubled teen, how to work with your teen once they have professional help, how to deal with anger and violence in a teenager, and a list of tips on how to help troubled teens including: connect with your teen, make healthy lifestyle changes, and take care of yourself.
Family First Aid: Delinquent Teens
http://www.familyfirstaid.org/issues/delinquent-teens/
Offers an explanation of delinquency, associated risk factors, and a list of suggested steps to take if you suspect a teen of engaging in delinquent behaviour.
National Mental Health and Education Center
http://www.naspcenter.org/adol_delin.html
Includes a short synopsis on “What can I do as a parent?” and “What can I do as a teacher?”
United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/PreventionOfJuvenileDelinquency.aspx
Section “B” covers education and gives extensive information of the role of the teacher and the school in creating supportive safe environments.
Substance Abuse
Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse
http://www.ccsa.ca/Eng/topics/Pages/default.aspx
Highlights information of marijuana, alcohol, and prescription drugs as well as drug prevention information
John Howard Society of Alberta
http://www.johnhoward.ab.ca/how-teachers-can-help-prevent-substance-abuse/
Focuses on knowledge as prevention, providing teachers and schools with recommendations on best practices to prevents substance abuse as well as links to other documents for teachers.
Joint Consortium for School Health
http://www.jcsh-cces.ca/upload/JCSH%20Substance%20Use%20Toolkit%20Classroom%20Education%20v1.pdf
A knowledge kit for Canadian teachers as part of a comprehensive approach to substance use involving teachers, schools, and the broader community.
Eating Problems
Kelty Mental Health Resource Centre
A collection of valuable resources including websites, toolkits and lesson plans, books and DVD’s, and support services to address eating disorders and prevention programs.
National Eating disorder Information Centre (NEDIC)
http://www.nedic.ca/give-get-help/prevention-health-promotion
A detailed report on preventions strategies and health promotion including general information, ideas for families, educators, and administrators.
British Columbia Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch
https://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/specialed/edi/ed1.pdf
A manual for teachers on teaching students with eating disorders including identifying at-risk students, and pro-active intervention strategies.
Depression
British Columbia Ministry of Education Special Programs Branch
https://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/specialed/docs/depression_resource.pdf
A manual for teachers on teaching students with depression including identifying at-risk students, teaching coping strategies, building a support network, and working with parents and professional treatment programs.
Association for Supervision and curriculum Development
A comprehensive article on responding to a student’s depression including an extensive list of depression characteristics in children and adolescents,, teaching coping strategies, promoting social interaction, involving families, and addressing suicidal ideation.
Suicide
Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention
http://suicideprevention.ca/understanding/suicide-in-the-workplace/suicide-and-school/
An article on understanding suicide in school including prevention on the scale of the individual, school, and community.
Centre for Suicide Prevention
http://www.suicideinfo.ca/Library/Resources/ResourceToolkits.aspx
A resource toolkit for the general population including statistics, warning signs, risk factors, and protective factors.
Youthwork Links and Ideas
http://www.youthwork.com/healthmentsuicide.html
A resource page with links to various suicide prevention and information sites.
Although cigarette use has decreased in recent decades (Statistics Canada, 2010), smoking still represents a significant risk for adolescents with almost 1 in 5 males and over 1 in 10 females smoking in Grade 10. Of greatest concern is the long-term risks associated with smoking as this vice is responsible for 1 in 5 deaths annually (Statistics Canada, 2011). The rates of marijuana among Grade 12 students is substantially greater than cigarette smoking with nearly 30% of students self-identifying as users (Leatherdale & Burkhalter, 2012). Unfortunately, the effects of marijuana last for several days and can therefore have negative effects of an adolescent's school life as they have impaired judgement. Perhaps this is why marijuana use is associated with lower grades (Pope, 2012).
Image by wix.
The sensationalization of extreme thinness is in conflict with the natural development of the female body during puberty resulting in feelings of depression and body anxiety in many adolescent girls. The combination of media messages and cultural pressure translate to girls being 10 times more likely than boys to develop a serious eating disorder during adolescence (Butcher et al., 2007) Two eating disorders that primarily affect girls during adolescence are anorexia nervosa and bulimia. Although these are fairly uncommon disorders, many young women show symptoms associated with them (McMahon & Thompson, 2015).
Risk factors for eating problems include body dissatisfaction (Johnson & Wardle, 2005), negative self-image (Sim & Zeman, 2006), childhood emotional abuse (Groleau, Steiger, Bruce, Isreal, Syez, Ouellette, & Badawi, 2012), perfectionism, obsessive and compulsive behaviours (Hoffman, Gagne, Thornton, Klump, Brandt, Crawford, & Bulik, 2012), and higher socio-economic backgrounds (Schmidt, 2003).
Media messages can result in negative body image leading to eating disorders.
Image by wix.
Even a single unnecessary adolescent death is far too many, as such the prevalence of suicide and suicidal thinking among adolescents is not only a cause for alarm, it is a call to action for all possible support systems in a teens life, including teachers. After car accidents, suicide is the leading cause of death for Canadian teens (PHAC, 2012). Both boys and girls are affected: girls are twice as likely to attempt suicide and boys are more likely to succeed in their attempts (CDCP, 2006; McMahan & Thompson, 2015). Aboriginal youth are at a higher risk than other racial groups, and Inuit youth have one of the highest suicide rates in the world (Health Canada, 2012).
Risk factors for suicide include previous unsuccessful attempts (Spirito & Oberholser, 2003), and depression (Holmes & Holmes, 2005), and therefore encompass the previously mentioned risk factors for depression.
Aboriginal youth, particularly Inuit, are at a higher risk for suicide (Health Canada, 2012).
Citations
Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2006). Cognitive vulnerability to depression: Current status and development origins. In T. E. Joiner, J. S. Brown & J. Kistner (Eds.), The interpersonal, cognitive, and social nature of depression. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Beaver, K. M., Ratchford, M., & Ferguson, C. J. (2009). Evidence of genetic and environmental effect on the development of low self-control. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 36(11), 1158-1172.
Branstetter, S. A., Low, S., & Furman, W. (2011). The influence of parents and friends on adolescent substance use: A multidimensional approach. Journal of Substance Use, 16(2), 150-160. doi:10.3109/14659891.2010.519421
Bryant, A. L., Schulenberg, J. E., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Johnston, L. D. (2003). How academic achievement, attitudes, and behaviours relate to the course of substance use during adolescence: A 6-year, multiwave national longitudinal study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13, 361-397.
Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J.M. (2007). Abnormal psychology (13th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse (CCSA). (2011). Cross-Canada report on student alcohol and drug use. Retrieved from http://www.ccsa.ca/2011%20CCSA%20Documents/2011_CCSA_Student_Alcohol_and_Drug_Use_en.pdf
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. F., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, A. W., et al. (2002). Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297, 851-854.
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP). (2006). Youth risk behaviour surveillance - 2005. Morbidity and mortality weekly report, 55(No. SS-5), 2-108.
Chandler, M. J., & Lalonde,C. E. (2008). Cultural continuity as a protective factor against suicide in First Nations youth. Horizons - A special issue on Aboriginal youth, hope or heartbreak: Aboriginal youth and Canada’s future. 10(1), 68-72.
Chaplin, T. M., Sinha, R., Simmons, J. A., Healy, S. M., Mayes, L. C., Hommer, R. E., & Crowley, M. J. (2011). Parent-adolescent conflict interactions and adolescent alcohol use. Addictive Behaviours, 37(5), 605-612. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.01.004
Cutrona, C. E., Wallace, G., & Wesner, K. A. (2006). Neighbourhood characteristics and depression: An examination of stress process. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 188-192.
Ellis, W. E., Crooks, C. V., & Wolfe, D. A. (2009). Relational aggression in peer and dating relationships: Links to psychological and behavioural adjustment. Social Development, 18(2), 253-269. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00468.x
Foley, D. L., Eaves, L. J., Wormley, B., Silberg, J., Maes, H., Kuhn, J., et al. (2004). childhood adversity, monoamine oxidase A genotype, and risk for conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 738-744.
Ge, X., Natsuaki, M. N., & Conger, R. D. (2006). Trajectories of depressive symptoms and stressful life events among male and female adolescents in divorced and nondivorced families. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 253-273.
Graber, J. A., (2004). Internalizing problems during adolescence. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, New York: Wiley.
Groleau, P., Steiger, H., Bruce, K., Isreal, M., Syez, L., Ouellette, A. S., & Badawi, G. (2012). Childhood emotional abuse and eating symptoms in bulimic disorders: An examination of possible mediating variables. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 45(3), 326-332. doi:10.1002/eat.20939.
Guberman, C., & Manassis, K. (2011). Symptomatology and family functioning in children and adolescents with comorbid anxiety and depression. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(3), 186-195.
Health Canada. (2012). Canadian alcohol and drug use monitoring survey (CADUMS). Retreived from http://www.he-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/drugs-drogues/cadums-esccad-eng.php
Hoffman, E. R., Gagne, D. A., Thornton, L. M., Klump, K. L., Brandt, H., Crawford, S., & Bulik, C. M. (2012). Understanding the association of impulsivity, obsessions, and compulsions with binge eating and purging behaviours in anorexia nervosa. European Eating Disorders Review, 20(3), e129-e136. doi:10.1002/erv.2161.
Holmes, R. M., & Holmes, S. T. (2005). Suicide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Johnson, F., & Wardle, J. (2005). Dietary restraint, body dissatisfaction, and psychological distress: A prospective analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 119-125.
Kiesner, J., & Kerr, M. (2004). Families, peers, and contexts as multiple determinants of adolescent problem behavior. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 493-495.
Klonsky, E. D., Kotov, R., Baskt, S., Rabinowitz, J., & Bromet, E. J. (2012). Hopelessness as a predictor of attempted suicide among first admission patients with psychosis: A 10-year cohort study. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behaviour, 42(1), 1-10. doi:10.1111/j.1943-278X.2011.00066.x
Leatherdale, S. T., & Burkhalter, R. (2012). The substance use profile of canadian youth: Exploring the prevalence of alcohol, drug and tobacco use by gender and grade. Addictive Behaviours, 37(3), 318-322. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.10.007.
Loftus, J., Kelly, B. C., & Mustillo, S. A., (2011). Depressive symptoms among adolescent girls in relationships with older partners: Causes and lasting effects? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(7), 800-813. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9589-3.
McMahan, I., & Thompson, S. (2015). Adolescence: Canadian Edition. Toronto: Pearson.
McNamara, J. K., & Willoughby, T. (2010). A longitudinal study of risk-taking behaviour in adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 25(1), 11-24. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00297.x
Millings, A., Buck, R., Montgomery, A., Spears, M., & Stallard, P. (2012). School connectedness, peer attachment, and self-esteem as predictors of adolescent depression. Journal of Adolescence, 35(4), 1061-1067. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.02.015.
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). (2012). Overview: Youth and impaired driving. Retrieved from http://www.madd.ca/madd2/en/impaired_driving/impaired_driving_youth.html.
Nolen-Hocksema, S., & Corte, C. (2004). Gender and self-regulation. In R.F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. New York: Guilford.
Ollendick, T. H., Shortt, A. L., & Sander, J. B. (2005). Internalizing disorders of childhood and adolescence. In J. E. Maddux & B. A. Winstead (Eds.), Psychopathology: Foundations for a contemporary understanding. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Pepler, D., Jiang, D., Craig, W., & Connolly, J. (2010). Developmental trajectories of girls’ and boys’ delinquency and associated problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(7), 1033-1044. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9389-y.
Pope, H. (2002). Cannabis, cognition, and residual confounding. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 1172-1174.
Schmidt, U. (2003). Aetiology of eating disorders in the 21st century: New answers to old questions. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 12(Supp. 1), 1130-1137.
Sim, L., & Zeman, J. (2006). The contribution of emotion regulation to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in early adolescent girls. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 219-228.
Spirito, A., & Oberholser, J. C., (2003). Evaluating and treating adolescent suicide attempts: From research to practice. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Statistics Canada. (2010b). Where and when youth commit police-reported crimes, 2008 (Catalogue no. 85-002-X). Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/2010002/article/11241-eng.pdf.
Statistics Canada. (2010c). Study: Projections of the diversity of the Canadian population. Retrieved from http://www/statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotiden/100309/dq100309a-eng.htm
Statistics Canada. (2011). Sense of belonging to local community, somewhat strong or very strong, by age group and sex (CANSIM table 105-0501, Catalogue no. 82-221-X). Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/101/cst01/health99a-eng.htm
Statistics Canada. (2012).Police-reported crime statistics. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotiden/120724/dq12074b-eng.htm
Tonmyr, L., Thornton, T., Draca, J., & Wekerle, C. (2010). A review of childhood maltreatment and adolescent substance use relationship. Current Psychiatry Reviews, 6(3), 223-234. doi:10.2174/157340010791792581.
Tonmyr, L., Williams, G., Hovdestad, W. E., & Draca, J. (2011). Anxiety and/or depression in 10-15-year-olds investigated by child welfare in Canada. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(5), 493-498. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.009
Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the Children’s Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578-588.
Van Leeuwen, K., De Fruyt, F., & Mervielde, I. (2004). A longitudinal study of the utility of the resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality types as predictors of children’s and adolescents’ problem behaviour. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 28, 210-220.